الفهرس 
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Abstract
The political and administrative system in each country is determined by public policy making; it sets the main directions of the system and for local government and translates them into reality for the organization of the government work.
The degree and lack of governmental concentration are related to decision-making authority within the administrative level, whether in the central capital or local units, but the centralization and decentralization are related to delegate unit/s that makes decisions in the governmental organizations of the state as a whole.
Decentralization is one of the most important mechanism with which we can empower citizens and enable their participation in the community and in the management of public policies for the communities in which they live.
Also, as a result of the large interaction between individuals and groups and the multiplicity of their needs, aspirations and expectations, there has arguably been a dramatic increase in the size of many providing organisation.
In this context, the Egyptian Government, represented by the Ministry of State for Local Development collects sector activities of local development in five major programs including roads and transport, electricity, improving the environment, security and fire and traffic, and strengthening of the local units. This is part of an overall strategy to move towards decentralization with a view to local development plans being made in a decentralized manner and taking into account the standards of justice and development while ensuring an effective role for all parties involved in the process of local development, whether executive or popular.
Local organization in England can be considered a model of local government in the framework of the unified state; the White Paper pointed out that the local democracy means that local authorities should take a real role in decision making and implementation without being influenced by the intervention the central government by financial policies or resources. The local units should be divided and the local authorities organised depending on the existence of common interests among the local population, through the ties of work or on the basis of historical heritage to a certain area. Thus real local democracy must provide local decision making – local public policy- Hampton (1991:34).
1- Statement of the problem
There has been a global interest in the concept of decentralization since the late twentieth century as a result of political variables, economic and technological changes. However decentralization is not an aim in itself, but a philosophy and development tool, enabling people to participate in making decisions concerning the development of their communities, including their own benefit. Decentralization is an important tool for development in developing countries, especially in the third world. Giles Marcus (1993:12)
The Egyptian constitution has been clear on the need for the transfer of powers into local units, but since the issuance of the constitution 40 years ago (1971 Constitution) , that transfer of powers to local levels has not been happened. In fact what happened in practice was that the central government tried to tighten their grip on the local units, so that it established National Bodies belonging to the ministries which took over the jurisdiction of local government and unfairly distributed the financial resources.
In fact, the local government system in Egypt has been significantly affected by the environment, especially in relation to geographic location and political situation, due to the extreme reliance on the Nile River in drinking and irrigation matters. All of that suggested the need for a strong central authority to take control over the river and regulate its annual flood.
On one hand, most of the general decentralisation concepts are defined as a transferring of the responsibility for planning, decision-making, or administrative authority from central government to its subordinate or quasi-independent government organizations. Koehn (1995:72)
Decentralisation deals with the allocation of power and its exercise. It ”involves transfer of powers to locally elected authorities, where policies are both made and carried out on the local level”. Lawrence S. Graham (1980:219), and administrative decentralisation seeks to redistribute authority, responsibility and financial resources for producing public services among different levels of government.
On the other hand, decentralisation could also be expected to contribute to key elements of good governance, such as increasing people’s opportunities for participation in economic, social and political decisions; assisting in developing people’s capacities; and enhancing government responsiveness, transparency and accountability. UNDP (1997:4)
The problem underpinning this study focuses on a confusion about the concept of decentralisation that has been adopted by the Egyptian government as an administrative policy and a tool for local development and not as a tool of public policy and local policy making.
from here, the study focuses on to what extent the National Egyptian Strategy for a move towards decentralisation adopts the concept of decentralisation as a public policy.
Local system in Egypt differs from international experience in many ways, the most important are; the weak role of local units, lack of effective accountability tools to local councils, imbalance between authority and responsibility, duplication of supervision of local units, and the lack of real authority to the governor on public bodies .
Consequently, the study is trying to benefit from international experiences of other countries in this regard, particularly in the area of public policy making.
2- Purpose of the Research
The dissertation aims at describing the practice of decentralization in public administration institutions in the U.K and the federal system in the USA. Policy making in the public sector will be analyzed in the light of the political context in Egypt, the U.K, and USA. The purpose of the dissertation is to provide an overview of UK efforts in local government reform and decentralization.
The goal of the study is not to encourage a dominant local authority to replace a dominant centralised authority, but the transfer of authority to the local level so that the decision shall be issued by the citizens who are representatives of the local council.
Also, the dissertation describes the Egyptian constitution to implement centralisation and decentralization, and then determines the strength and weakness of it.
The following are many sub- purposes of the research:
1- Identify the developments that have helped spread decentralisation as an ideology and practice and consider whether decentralisation is a goal in itself or a philosophy of political and administrative system.
2- Analyze and compare the similarities and dissimilarities among the regimes of decentralisation in some countries like Egypt, USA and U.K.
3- To understand the required conditions for establishing decentralisation.
4- Determine the problems and obstacles of local administration and methods of treatment.
5- Identify the role of decentralisation in the design and implementation of local politics.
3- Research Questions
The dissertation gave special attention to investigating, trying to lay bare and answering the following questions:
1- What are the current legislative and legal frameworks for decentralisation in Egypt and its basic features?
2- To what extent can decentralisation play a role in public policy (Macro-Politics) or local policy (Micro-Politics) making?
3- How can we overcome the challenges which are facing the application of decentralization as a public policy?
4- To what extent can we benefit from the experiences of other countries in the area of public policy making?
5- Is there a degree of administrative decentralization inside public organizations in Egypt?
6- To what extent can we observe the application of decentralization in departments inside public organizations in Egypt?
7- What are the main factors which lead to the application of decentralization in departments inside public organizations?
8- What are the difficulties that reduce the quality of the administrative decentralization application in Egypt?
4- Significance of the Research
The importance of this research can be summarized as follows:
First: in practice, the dissertation focuses on decentralisation linked to different components of the local government and its stages and methods. Beginning with the organisational structure as the methods used for achieving the organisational goals, decentralisation is like a thread that links all phases of local government, and it is the starting point in the various references.
Second, the dissertation identifies the role of decentralisation in the design and implementation of local public policy, knowing the developments that have helped the spread of decentralisation and analysing, and comparing similarities and differences among other regimes of decentralisation, in other countries.
Also, the study of public policy in any country can be achieved through in-depth understanding of the community and by knowing the sources and results of policy decision in that community.
5 - Terminologies
There are many and varied definitions and terminologies in the study due to the nature of the topic and its importance, but there are definitions the readers must know before getting to grips with the research such as:
Decentralisation
The UNDP (1997: 4) refers “decentralisation to the restructuring or reorganization of authority so that there is a system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the central, regional and local levels according to the principle of subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and effectiveness of the system of governance, while increasing the authority and capacities of sub-national levels. ... Decentralization could also be expected to contribute to key elements of good governance, such as increasing people’s opportunities for participation in economic, social and political decisions; assisting in developing people’s capacities; and enhancing government responsiveness, transparency and accountability”.
De-concentration
The transfer of some amount of administrative authority or responsibility to sub national levels within central government ministries and agencies Rondinelli et al (1984:11).
The World Bank (1999:7) definition is: the weakest form of decentralization – redistributes decision making authority and financial responsibilities among different levels of the national government.
Devolution
The World Bank (1999:6) definition is the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the central government to subordinate or quasi-independent government organizations and/or private sector.
Delegation
Delegation of authority transfers managerial responsibility for precise defined functions to organisations that are not under the direct control of central government ministries. Rondinelli et al. (1984:20)
Local Government
“There are two approaches to the definition of local government in the literature. One approach, which is usually adopted in comparative studies, is to regard all such national structures below the central government as local government.
A second approach is more circumspect in that local governments are identified by certain defining characteristics. These characteristics usually focus on the following five attributes: legal personality, specified powers to perform a range of functions, substantial budgetary and staffing autonomy subject to limited central control, effective citizen participation and localness. These are regarded as essential to distinguish it from all other forms of local institutions and also ensure its organizational effectiveness”. Olowu (1988: 12)
Local Governance
Local Governance comprises a set of institutions, mechanisms and processes through which citizens and their groups can articulate their interests and needs, mediate their differences, and exercise their rights and obligations at the local level. The UNDP (2004:4)
Macro Policy
Macro policy is defined as the basic policy parameters. It constitutes the fundamental principles of the regulatory system.
It is a policy which affects the whole country. It is concerned with monetary, fiscal, trade and exchange rate conditions as well as with economic growth, inflation and national employment levels. Ashley Brown (2011:2)
Micro Policy:
Micro policy-making is defined as the action of regulators, operating within their legal authority and consistent with the macro policies formally enacted by the government, to apply, clarify, interpret, and fill in details left unspecified by macro policy-makers. It is a policy which only affects particular sectors, districts, neighborhoods or groups. Ashley Brown (2010:2)
Municipality
A municipality is “a political unit, such as a city, town, or village, incorporated (by the state) for local self-government or a body of officials appointed to manage the affairs of a local political unit.” Deb Markowitz (2009:1)
In the United Kingdom, the term can be used both for a city or town which is organized for self-government under a municipal corporation, and also for the governing body itself. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, and of superior members, as aldermen and councillors.
6 - Current State of Literature
The literature available on the subject of public policy and decentralisation is vast, and provides an important basis for the assessment of the appropriateness, effectiveness, and efficiency of the public policy and decentralisation framework.
There are numerous definitions of public policy which reflect the wide range of contexts in which it is used (Dye 1972, Anderson 1978, Brooks 1989, and. Birkland 2010).
Thomas Dye (1972) and James Anderson (1972) were the first two scholars who analysed public policy in depth. Dye designed his study to provide researchers with concrete tools to understand public policy in general, and to analyse specific public policies. Anderson, on the other hand, regarded the process of policy making as a policy cycle.
Some of the literature addresses “Governance issues” Rishards and Smith (2002), for example, found a link between governance and public policy in the UK.
The authors analysed the changing nature of public policy over the last thirty years, however they neglected the role of decentralisation in UK.
The most important theoretical argument concerning decentralization in the literature is by Jean Faguet (2011) who discussed the improvement of governance by making the government more accountable and responsive to the governed. It can, however, be seen that the literature has mostly focused on policy-relevant outcomes, such as education and health services, public investment, and fiscal deficits. The author examined how decentralization affects governance, in particular how it might increase political competition, improve public accountability, reduce political instability.
The study by F. Fleuke and Willemse (2004), is useful, as it identifies four main approaches to the issue of decentralization and local autonomy: the formal, dynamic, functional, and governance approach. The research here focuses on the concept of decentralisation from the latter approaches. First, the dynamic approach focuses on the process of task redistribution among tiers as a consequence of changes in society. Second, the functional approach focuses primarily on the local level, considering issues of horizontal decentralization and the implications for local autonomy. Finally the governance approach substitutes networks for issues of decentralization.
It can be seen, that all of the above studies, on both public policy and decentralisation, are related through different concepts, models, approaches and processes. What is also apparent is the lack of literature on the link between decentralisation and public policy making.
This research represents an attempt to fill the gap in the literature by making a link between the concept of decentralisation and the concept of public policy making. More precisely, the study will explore how both impact upon one another.
In the Egyptian scene there is much literature related to decentralisation and local government such as:
Afaf Albaz (2004) identified the main factors that affect institutional performance by examining three main dimensions: inputs, outputs and goals.
This study also presented a model to measure the performance of organisations in Egypt, taking into account that the indicators applied by this model differ from one organisation to the other, according to the activities of each. This study also avoided the debates about decentralisation, and its impact on institutional performance. It offers the conceptual framework for institutional performance through focusing on the central government.
Samir Abdel Wahab (2006) aimed to analyze the role of local government in local development, within the context of a changing role of the state and market economy, whether on the international level, or in Egypt.This link between local government and development is important but the main criticism lies in the lack of references about the new concept of governance.
Kamal El Menoufi (2001) study contained three important topics. First, it dealt with the theoretical debates around the concept of decentralization, particularly in light of contemporary changes. Second, it addressed the relationship between decentralization, development and administration, in light of current changes and the rise of the concept of “interactive administration”. Third, it addressed the role of decentralization in local development in light of the current transformations and the shift towards a free economy and liberal democracy, as well as the appropriateness of decentralisation to local development in Egypt.
Mahmoud El Sherif & et al. (2004) analyse the concepts of centralization and decentralisation, and the main conditions for the establishment of decentralisation. By looking at the Egyptian case the authors conclude by offering practical suggestions to activate the shift towards decentralization. The study asserts the role of institutions and international development reports.
Finally, El Menoufi (2001) and El-Shrif (2004) have not made a link between decentralisation and public policymaking, and used the concept of decentralisation as a tool for development. Both studies show a lack of attention to the functional concept of decentralisation and avoided debates about the linkages with and between other concepts such as, responsiveness, accountability, and corruption.
7- Methodology and Procedures
This study is divided into five chapters, plus an introduction to the background of the problem, the purpose of the research, research questions, significance of the research, and the current state of the literature.
Chapter one provides the idea of public policy and decentralisation. Through reviewing the theoretical view of both, it determines the relationship among public policy, and decentralisation. In this chapter the researcher draws on qualitative data analysis which to describe certain types of decentralisation, politics, and the models of public policy.
Chapter two provides the British idea of decentralisation through showing the structure of local government in the UK, the structural evolution of the UK local government, acts and laws which relate to it, and the relationship between the central government and local authorities. In this chapter, the researcher used the descriptive method of research to gather information about the present condition of the UK’s public administration. The purpose of employing this method is to describe the nature of local government in the UK, as it exists at the time of the study and to explore the cause/s of particular phenomena.
Chapter three outlines the public administration model in the United States, the criteria which are shaping the framework of federalism, as well as the relationship between the states with each other.
The last two chapters are related to case study of Egypt, Chapter four will address the nature of Egyptian public administration and local governance; Chapter five is a practical / empirical study of the applications of decentralisation in Egypt.
A case study approach used to describe the complexities of the Egyptian local government system. This allows exploration of the interrelation between public policy and decentralisation. Through the case study it is possible to explore the diverse nature of Egyptian public policy and local government and the different approaches adopted by Egyptian local government and other agents to identify different patterns of decentralisation and roles.
The different experience of the United Kingdom and United States helped to create awareness of difference and in so doing it helps clarify the theoretical gaps.
This diverse is leading to use the comparative method which its main advantage is making the study of public policy and decentralisation more structured. Comparative analysis focuses on allowing new patterns of decentralisation and theoretical derived methods, by analyzing the two countries, the UK and USA, in which influences are different and allows an understanding of how these influences may have improved overtime.
The researcher used both qualitative and quantitative analysis through data gathering such as observations. and designed questionnaire. This was designed to get qualitative and quantitative data with the primary aim being to determine the backDROP of governmental employers and managers about the concepts and types of decentralisation, and understanding the centralisation problems to overcome the challenges.
For chapter five, the researcher used a sample of 384 Governmental employees randomly selected from different places which are related to the public sector, like the Electricity sector, Governorate employees, Councils employees…..etc. To test the reliability of the questionnaire constructs before distributing the questionnaire it was tented among the research population. Then, the questionnaire was distributed to the employees.
330 questionnaires for the survey were returned from the surveyed sample. This represents an 85.9 % response rate.
Statistical analysis methods: -
After the completion of the data collection, the researcher used the program SPSS17 to classify and schedule the data, and make the appropriate statistical analysis to analyze the data and test the validity of the study questions, all of that through applying descriptive and inferential statistics
1- Descriptive statistics: -
Descriptive statistics based on all of the arithmetic mean and standard deviation to describe variables of the study through the data collected, as well as using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient which is used to measure the validity and reliability of the questions in the survey, as well as to ascertain the importance of these questions in the analysis.
2- Inferential statistics: -
The researcher used in the analysis of the study data statistics methods to answer the questions, one of these method is as follows: -
Chi ² test is s statistical method used to test the significant differences between different answers