الفهرس 
GENERAL INTRODUCTIONOnly 14 pages are availabe for public view
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Abstract
Many bacterial infections have detrimental effects on patients’ health and the cost of treatment,
leading to tremendous distress. The increase of antimicrobial resistance in microorganisms is the
main concern about these infections. Antimicrobial resistance is a condition in which bacteria
adapt over time and stop responding to antibiotics. Thus, making infections more difficult to treat
and raising the risk of disease spread, life-threatening illness, and death. Nowadays, bacterial
resistance to antimicrobials is not limited to intrinsic resistance, it expanded to be multidrugresistant
(MDR), extensively drug-resistant (XDR), and pan-drug-resistant (PDR). In other words,
bacteria had been shifted from wide antimicrobial susceptibility to being resistant to at least one
agent in three antimicrobial categories, at least one agent in all antimicrobial categories, or all
agents in all categories of antimicrobials, respectively. Infections with MDR microorganisms
dramatically increase the duration of hospital stay, fatality rates, and healthcare expenses [1].
The most prevalent bacteria of significant resistance to antibiotics are the ESKAPE. The ESKAPE
pathogens are Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species. These pathogens
are named “ESKAPE” because they can escape from the antimicrobial activity of antibiotics,
causing serious infections. Even though these bacteria are routinely isolated from clinical
environments and are linked to several potentially fatal hospital-associated diseases, antibioticresistant
ESKAPE strains have also been recovered from environmental reservoirs like water, soil,
food plants, and livestock. Today, ESKAPE pathogens can disastrously cause significant
untreatable fatal illnesses. The ESKAPE infections lead to a diagnosis dilemma, difficulty in
starting empirical therapy, significant healthcare expenses, and eventually high mortality and
morbidity [2].