الفهرس 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSOnly 14 pages are availabe for public view
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Abstract
Archaeological sites in Egypt used to stand in dry environments as the ancient architects planned. Several sites are found nowadays bathed in water and seriously threatened by groundwater rise. The study area of Abydos archaeological site is one of these sites which at high risk and suffer from groundwater level rise as well as increase in water salinity. The Abydos archaeological site is one of the most important burial grounds for kings and high court dignitaries in ancient Egypt lies between latitudes 26º 10`N and 26º 15` N and longitudes 31º 53`E and 31º 57` E, about 13 km west of the River Nile at El-Balyana city in Sohag Governorate, Egypt. The problem of groundwater level rise at Abydos site is more pronounced at the Osirion temple that may cause accelerated deterioration of stone foundations of the temples and monuments of Abydos archaeological site. In addition, the expansion of urbanization and agriculture are jeopardizing buried monuments that have not been discovered and unearthed.
In order to mitigate the deterioration problem of the stone foundations and help preserve the monuments at Abydos archaeological site and in particular the Osirion and its surrounding area, it is necessary to understand the hydrostratigraphy of the Abydos site and to investigate areas that may host buried (undiscovered) monuments. To achieve this goal, a 2D and 3D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) as well as high resolution magnetic gradiometer survey were conducted on the area surrounding the Osirion which is located behind the temple of Abydos. The main objectives of the present study were to (1) characterize the subsurface lithology; (2) determine the depth to the water table and distribution of groundwater; (3) map any possible subsurface structure that may represent conduits for groundwater movements; and (4) detect the depth and geometry of any buried archaeological remains (old pits and buried walls).
Historical Background:
Abydos is one of the earliest archaeological places in Upper Egypt. It was built since 4000 years ago. The ancient Egyptian Abedju locality (original name of the present Abydos) represents one of the most important burial grounds for kings and high court dignitaries in ancient Egypt where the early pharaohs were entombed. The Abydos city became the most venerated district in Egypt, as it was associated with religion of Osiris and the desired burial sites for the earliest and oldest kings like Seti I and Ramesses II. Behind the Temple of Seti I, the Osirion was built at 15 m below ground surface, in which the Pharaonic funeral ceremony took place. Abydos reached the height of its glory under these two kings. For political and religious reasons Seti I built a funerary temple there for his father Ramses I and another one for himself. There is practically nothing left of the temple of Ramses I whereas that of Seti I is one of the best-preserved masterpieces of ancient Egypt.
Geological and Hydrogeological Settings:
Geologically, the majority of the Abydos area related to a great Quaternary to Pliocene sediments overlying, uncomfortably, the Esna Shale which belongs to the Early Tertiary. The general lithological section of the study area, consists of five rock units, classified from base to top; a) Pliocene Clay, b) Qena Sands (Upper Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene), c) Kom Ombo Gravel, d) El Ghawanim Formation, and e) the Dandara Formation. The geomorphological features of Abydos site are represented by four units: 1) limestone plateau, 2) the wadis, 3) the low desert region, and the Nile flood plain. The aquifer in the study area is mostly made up of Cenozoic deposits that mostly formed of gravels, sands, sandstones, and Pliocene clay. The average depth to groundwater in the study area is about 13.30 m below land surface, and the average water level is around 64 m amsl. The ground water flow direction is from NE to SW. The general structure of Abydos area revealed that the limestone cliff around the area is surrounded by two main faults trending NE-SW and NW-SE, forming a major promontory. These promontories play a serious role in the groundwater flow within the area.
Materials and Methods:
2D Electrical Resistivity Measurements:
The 2D electrical resistivity (ERT) measurements were conducted along fourteen profiles covering the study area surrounding the Osirion. The ERT measurements were collected by employing a pole-dipole electrode configuration, 2.5m electrode spacing and ABEM Terrameter SAS 300 resistivity meter. These profiles were varied in length from 80m to 360m and extended in two perpendicular directions which are NW-SE and SW-NE in order to have a good coverage of the study area and to use the data for 3D modeling. The ERT measurements were processed using RES2DINV and the obtained 2D resistivity sections were calibrated with the lithology of the nearby drilled wells at the study site. The results of the inverted 2D ERT profiles were compiled together and a 3D VOXEL model was created using the GEOSOFT Oasis montaj software.
Magnetic Gradiometer Survey:
The high-resolution magnetic gradiometer survey was acquired on an area of 300 x 300 m that divided into 9 blocks labelled from B1 to B9, each block measures 100m x 100m. The magnetic gradiometer data were collected using G-856 proton-precession magnetometer (Geometrics USA), 10m line spacing and 5m station interval. The collected magnetic gradiometer data was corrected and processed using the Geosoft Oasis Montaj by applying different filters (e.g., Butterworth high pass filter and Analytical signal transformation) and depth estimation methods (e.g., radial average power spectrum, source parameter imaging, and Euler 3D deconvolution).
Important Findings:
2D Electrical Resistivity Measurements:
According to the interpretation of the 2D inverted ERT profiles, three different geoelectrical layers were observed in the majority of profiles, as follows from top to bottom:
1- The first zone has a high resistivity of over 2000 ohm.m, which matches the surface wadi deposits at the location, which are a combination of gravel, sand and silt. The thickness of this zone rises in general from the western (” " ~ " ”2.5 m) to the eastern (” " ~ " ”5.0 m). In ERT profiles 13 and 14, which are east of the Osirion and in agricultural districts, this geoelectric zone is essentially non-existent.
2- The second zone refers to gravely sand is characterized by high resistivity values ranges from 2000 ohm.m to 10000 ohm.m. This zone extends to the bottom of the inverted resistivity profile which ranges in depth from 8 to 18 meters below the ground level.
3- The third zone, which can be located near the bottom of the resistivity section and has moderate resistivity ranges of 200 to 2000 ohm.m, possibly reflect the medium sand at the site. The thickness value of this zone ranges from 2.5-18m.
4- The fourth zone refers to muddy sand that is saturated with water at the bottom and is characterized by low resistivity values of less than 200 ohm.m. The thickness of this zone varies from 19 meters to roughly 6 meters at the site’s western and eastern edges.
Based on the thickness of the muddy sand bearing formation, the water table depth varies from 9 meters in the southern and southwestern parts of the study site to 18 meters in the northern and northeastern parts, indicating that groundwater flows from east to west as the Nile River feeds the aquifer at the site. The obtained 3D voxel model of the inverted resistivity results showed the presence of a buried conductive layer to the northeast of the study area (ERT profiles 12, 13 and 14) that may represent a conduit of the Nile river water to the temple of the Osirion and the study area. These results are in agreement with previous geophysical and archeological studies.
Magnetic Gradiometer Survey:
The high-resolution magnetic gradiometer survey is concerned with the detection of geometry and depth to buried archaeological remains located at the area surrounding Osirion at Abydos temple. The interpretation of both the high pass filtered and the analytical signal transformation magnetic maps showed very strong anomalies with square and rectangular shapes concentrated on the central, eastern and western parts of the study area that may represent buried archaeological features. A tentative map for the interpretation of the obtained results is produced showing the location and geometry of the possible buried archaeological feature at the study area. The average depth of the obtained magnetic anomalies ranges from 1.79 to 5.03 m below ground surface as confirmed from the radial average spectrum technique and from 1.8 m to 5.1 m as obtained from the source power imaging technique. However, the Euler 3D deconvolution method with a structure index 1 and 2 revealed a depth varies from 2.35m to 5.01m below ground surface. The observed anomalies to a great extent may represent buried tombs made of mud bricks rich in magnetic minerals.
Concluding Remarks and Recommendations:
Our results concluded that the main problem of groundwater level rise at the study area and in particular the Osirion is due to presence of a buried channel located to the northeast of the study area and working as conduit or pathway of the Nile river water to the temple of the Osirion and the study area. The produced tentative maps from the interpretation of magnetic gradiometer survey showing the location and geometry of the possible buried archaeological feature at the study area are very valuable and can be used during the excavation process which will save time and efforts. It is recommended to use other geophysical techniques (e.g., ground penetration radar, electromagnetic and microgravity) to support these results. Moreover, these results have potential economic impact that will motivate the administrators of the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities and the Ministry of Water Resources to move towards taking immediate action to excavate and protect these important archaeological artifacts (4000 years old) which are considered one of the most important sources of reactivation of tourism and increasing the income of Egypt.
Archaeological sites in Egypt used to stand in dry environments as the ancient architects planned. Several sites are found nowadays bathed in water and seriously threatened by groundwater rise. The study area of Abydos archaeological site is one of these sites which at high risk and suffer from groundwater level rise as well as increase in water salinity. The Abydos archaeological site is one of the most important burial grounds for kings and high court dignitaries in ancient Egypt lies between latitudes 26º 10`N and 26º 15` N and longitudes 31º 53`E and 31º 57` E, about 13 km west of the River Nile at El-Balyana city in Sohag Governorate, Egypt. The problem of groundwater level rise at Abydos site is more pronounced at the Osirion temple that may cause accelerated deterioration of stone foundations of the temples and monuments of Abydos archaeological site. In addition, the expansion of urbanization and agriculture are jeopardizing buried monuments that have not been discovered and unearthed.
In order to mitigate the deterioration problem of the stone foundations and help preserve the monuments at Abydos archaeological site and in particular the Osirion and its surrounding area, it is necessary to understand the hydrostratigraphy of the Abydos site and to investigate areas that may host buried (undiscovered) monuments. To achieve this goal, a 2D and 3D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) as well as high resolution magnetic gradiometer survey were conducted on the area surrounding the Osirion which is located behind the temple of Abydos. The main objectives of the present study were to (1) characterize the subsurface lithology; (2) determine the depth to the water table and distribution of groundwater; (3) map any possible subsurface structure that may represent conduits for groundwater movements; and (4) detect the depth and geometry of any buried archaeological remains (old pits and buried walls).
Historical Background:
Abydos is one of the earliest archaeological places in Upper Egypt. It was built since 4000 years ago. The ancient Egyptian Abedju locality (original name of the present Abydos) represents one of the most important burial grounds for kings and high court dignitaries in ancient Egypt where the early pharaohs were entombed. The Abydos city became the most venerated district in Egypt, as it was associated with religion of Osiris and the desired burial sites for the earliest and oldest kings like Seti I and Ramesses II. Behind the Temple of Seti I, the Osirion was built at 15 m below ground surface, in which the Pharaonic funeral ceremony took place. Abydos reached the height of its glory under these two kings. For political and religious reasons Seti I built a funerary temple there for his father Ramses I and another one for himself. There is practically nothing left of the temple of Ramses I whereas that of Seti I is one of the best-preserved masterpieces of ancient Egypt.
Geological and Hydrogeological Settings:
Geologically, the majority of the Abydos area related to a great Quaternary to Pliocene sediments overlying, uncomfortably, the Esna Shale which belongs to the Early Tertiary. The general lithological section of the study area, consists of five rock units, classified from base to top; a) Pliocene Clay, b) Qena Sands (Upper Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene), c) Kom Ombo Gravel, d) El Ghawanim Formation, and e) the Dandara Formation. The geomorphological features of Abydos site are represented by four units: 1) limestone plateau, 2) the wadis, 3) the low desert region, and the Nile flood plain. The aquifer in the study area is mostly made up of Cenozoic deposits that mostly formed of gravels, sands, sandstones, and Pliocene clay. The average depth to groundwater in the study area is about 13.30 m below land surface, and the average water level is around 64 m amsl. The ground water flow direction is from NE to SW. The general structure of Abydos area revealed that the limestone cliff around the area is surrounded by two main faults trending NE-SW and NW-SE, forming a major promontory. These promontories play a serious role in the groundwater flow within the area.
Materials and Methods:
2D Electrical Resistivity Measurements:
The 2D electrical resistivity (ERT) measurements were conducted along fourteen profiles covering the study area surrounding the Osirion. The ERT measurements were collected by employing a pole-dipole electrode configuration, 2.5m electrode spacing and ABEM Terrameter SAS 300 resistivity meter. These profiles were varied in length from 80m to 360m and extended in two perpendicular directions which are NW-SE and SW-NE in order to have a good coverage of the study area and to use the data for 3D modeling. The ERT measurements were processed using RES2DINV and the obtained 2D resistivity sections were calibrated with the lithology of the nearby drilled wells at the study site. The results of the inverted 2D ERT profiles were compiled together and a 3D VOXEL model was created using the GEOSOFT Oasis montaj software.
Magnetic Gradiometer Survey:
The high-resolution magnetic gradiometer survey was acquired on an area of 300 x 300 m that divided into 9 blocks labelled from B1 to B9, each block measures 100m x 100m. The magnetic gradiometer data were collected using G-856 proton-precession magnetometer (Geometrics USA), 10m line spacing and 5m station interval. The collected magnetic gradiometer data was corrected and processed using the Geosoft Oasis Montaj by applying different filters (e.g., Butterworth high pass filter and Analytical signal transformation) and depth estimation methods (e.g., radial average power spectrum, source parameter imaging, and Euler 3D deconvolution).
Important Findings:
2D Electrical Resistivity Measurements:
According to the interpretation of the 2D inverted ERT profiles, three different geoelectrical layers were observed in the majority of profiles, as follows from top to bottom:
1- The first zone has a high resistivity of over 2000 ohm.m, which matches the surface wadi deposits at the location, which are a combination of gravel, sand and silt. The thickness of this zone rises in general from the western (” " ~ " ”2.5 m) to the eastern (” " ~ " ”5.0 m). In ERT profiles 13 and 14, which are east of the Osirion and in agricultural districts, this geoelectric zone is essentially non-existent.
2- The second zone refers to gravely sand is characterized by high resistivity values ranges from 2000 ohm.m to 10000 ohm.m. This zone extends to the bottom of the inverted resistivity profile which ranges in depth from 8 to 18 meters below the ground level.
3- The third zone, which can be located near the bottom of the resistivity section and has moderate resistivity ranges of 200 to 2000 ohm.m, possibly reflect the medium sand at the site. The thickness value of this zone ranges from 2.5-18m.
4- The fourth zone refers to muddy sand that is saturated with water at the bottom and is characterized by low resistivity values of less than 200 ohm.m. The thickness of this zone varies from 19 meters to roughly 6 meters at the site’s western and eastern edges.
Based on the thickness of the muddy sand bearing formation, the water table depth varies from 9 meters in the southern and southwestern parts of the study site to 18 meters in the northern and northeastern parts, indicating that groundwater flows from east to west as the Nile River feeds the aquifer at the site. The obtained 3D voxel model of the inverted resistivity results showed the presence of a buried conductive layer to the northeast of the study area (ERT profiles 12, 13 and 14) that may represent a conduit of the Nile river water to the temple of the Osirion and the study area. These results are in agreement with previous geophysical and archeological studies.
Magnetic Gradiometer Survey:
The high-resolution magnetic gradiometer survey is concerned with the detection of geometry and depth to buried archaeological remains located at the area surrounding Osirion at Abydos temple. The interpretation of both the high pass filtered and the analytical signal transformation magnetic maps showed very strong anomalies with square and rectangular shapes concentrated on the central, eastern and western parts of the study area that may represent buried archaeological features. A tentative map for the interpretation of the obtained results is produced showing the location and geometry of the possible buried archaeological feature at the study area. The average depth of the obtained magnetic anomalies ranges from 1.79 to 5.03 m below ground surface as confirmed from the radial average spectrum technique and from 1.8 m to 5.1 m as obtained from the source power imaging technique. However, the Euler 3D deconvolution method with a structure index 1 and 2 revealed a depth varies from 2.35m to 5.01m below ground surface. The observed anomalies to a great extent may represent buried tombs made of mud bricks rich in magnetic minerals.
Concluding Remarks and Recommendations:
Our results concluded that the main problem of groundwater level rise at the study area and in particular the Osirion is due to presence of a buried channel located to the northeast of the study area and working as conduit or pathway of the Nile river water to the temple of the Osirion and the study area. The produced tentative maps from the interpretation of magnetic gradiometer survey showing the location and geometry of the possible buried archaeological feature at the study area are very valuable and can be used during the excavation process which will save time and efforts. It is recommended to use other geophysical techniques (e.g., ground penetration radar, electromagnetic and microgravity) to support these results. Moreover, these results have potential economic impact that will motivate the administrators of the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities and the Ministry of Water Resources to move towards taking immediate action to excavate and protect these important archaeological artifacts (4000 years old) which are considered one of the most important sources of reactivation of tourism and increasing the income of Egypt.
Archaeological sites in Egypt used to stand in dry environments as the ancient architects planned. Several sites are found nowadays bathed in water and seriously threatened by groundwater rise. The study area of Abydos archaeological site is one of these sites which at high risk and suffer from groundwater level rise as well as increase in water salinity. The Abydos archaeological site is one of the most important burial grounds for kings and high court dignitaries in ancient Egypt lies between latitudes 26º 10`N and 26º 15` N and longitudes 31º 53`E and 31º 57` E, about 13 km west of the River Nile at El-Balyana city in Sohag Governorate, Egypt. The problem of groundwater level rise at Abydos site is more pronounced at the Osirion temple that may cause accelerated deterioration of stone foundations of the temples and monuments of Abydos archaeological site. In addition, the expansion of urbanization and agriculture are jeopardizing buried monuments that have not been discovered and unearthed.
In order to mitigate the deterioration problem of the stone foundations and help preserve the monuments at Abydos archaeological site and in particular the Osirion and its surrounding area, it is necessary to understand the hydrostratigraphy of the Abydos site and to investigate areas that may host buried (undiscovered) monuments. To achieve this goal, a 2D and 3D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) as well as high resolution magnetic gradiometer survey were conducted on the area surrounding the Osirion which is located behind the temple of Abydos. The main objectives of the present study were to (1) characterize the subsurface lithology; (2) determine the depth to the water table and distribution of groundwater; (3) map any possible subsurface structure that may represent conduits for groundwater movements; and (4) detect the depth and geometry of any buried archaeological remains (old pits and buried walls).
Historical Background:
Abydos is one of the earliest archaeological places in Upper Egypt. It was built since 4000 years ago. The ancient Egyptian Abedju locality (original name of the present Abydos) represents one of the most important burial grounds for kings and high court dignitaries in ancient Egypt where the early pharaohs were entombed. The Abydos city became the most venerated district in Egypt, as it was associated with religion of Osiris and the desired burial sites for the earliest and oldest kings like Seti I and Ramesses II. Behind the Temple of Seti I, the Osirion was built at 15 m below ground surface, in which the Pharaonic funeral ceremony took place. Abydos reached the height of its glory under these two kings. For political and religious reasons Seti I built a funerary temple there for his father Ramses I and another one for himself. There is practically nothing left of the temple of Ramses I whereas that of Seti I is one of the best-preserved masterpieces of ancient Egypt.