الفهرس 
INTRODUCTIONOnly 14 pages are availabe for public view
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Abstract
The study area lies nearly between Inchas and Abu Zaabal (Longitudes 31° 17’, 31° 41’ E and Latitudes 30° 12’, 30° 28’ N) around Ismailia Canal which is one of the most important branches of the Nile River in Egypt. It is the main source for drinking and irrigation water for many cities. It was constructed in 1862 to supply drinking water to the villages on the Suez Canal zones and to the workers during digging the Suez Canal Navigation Route, and considered one of the most important irrigation and drinking water resources in Egypt.
Ismailia Canal water is used for irrigation, domestic and industrial uses, it is the principal source of drinking water for a great number of Egyptian citizens (about 12 million inhabitants), including those living in the northern part of Greater Cairo, Shubra El-Kheima, El Amiria, Mattaria, Musturod, Abu Zaabal, Inchas, Belbees, Abbasa, Abu-Hammad, Zagazig and El-Tal El-Kabeer, before entering the Suez Canal area as well as industrial purposes.
According to meteorological records, the climatic features of the study area are characterized by annual mean air temperature of approximately 19.9 °C and an average monthly temperature reaches its maximum value in July and August, and reaches its minimum value in January (11.2 °C).
The average annual relative humidity is approximately 68%, while the average monthly relative humidity reaches its maximum value in December (81 %) and its minimum value in May (53 %).
Rainfall is very limited. The average annual rainfall is about 25.5 mm. The majority of the rainfall is devoted to three months (December through February), with the highest in December. Annual rain days are very few; storms occur occasionally and are usually of short duration.
The dominant winds through the year have a northern component with an annual mean velocity of 12.27 km/h. The dominant winds over the winter season trend SSW, S, and SW. The affecting dominant winds over the summer period are multidirectional and trend NNW, N, and NNE. In transitional periods (spring and autumn), the winds trend dominantly in N and NNE directions.
The Quaternary sediments, of Pleistocene and Holocene, cover almost all the study area. Basaltic rocks of Upper Oligocene age are exposed at Abu Zaabal Quarries, while Miocene and Pliocene sediments outcrop at the eastern portions. Two hydrogeological cross sections were correlated with locations of samples of the study area to determine lithography and geological structure of the region, in addition to the source aquifers of groundwater.
Twenty three groundwater samples, representing all possible variations, were collected from the studied area in a manner that they cover the study area.
Fifteen surface water samples were collected from Ismailia Channel along Cairo - Ismailia agricultural road, in addition to Abu Zaabal lake which characterized by a high salinity. Each surface water sample was labeled and identified according to its location. TDS and EC were measured in the field.
Twenty one soil samples were collected from the study area from the cultivated and reclaimed lands, east and west of Ismailia Channel. Each soil sample was referred to its irrigation water, whether it is groundwater or surface water and labeled according to this basis. Each sample collected from five different points was mixed together with the others to represent the location of sampling.
The present study focused on the chemical and physicochemical characteristics of groundwater and surface water of the studied area. The chemical and physicochemical characteristics comprise the abundance and distribution of major ions, heavy metals, hydrogen ion concentration (pH), total dissolved salts (TDS), total hardness (TH) and electrical conductivity (EC).
The pH values of the groundwater in the study area range from 7.37 to 8.23 (with average of 7.67). These values indicate that the groundwater of the study area is slightly alkaline.
The slight alkalinity of groundwater may be due to the presence of soluble bicarbonate ions. Most of the groundwater in the study area can be considered to have a moderate corrosive effect.
Most of the samples show a higher EC values than the normal limit. The large variation in EC is mainly attributed to geochemical processes like ion exchange, reverse exchange, evaporation, silicate weathering, rock water interaction and the effects of sulphate reduction and oxidation processes.
The high EC in some samples such as G17 attributed to the high value of TDS as a result of the nature of the source of groundwater which belongs to Miocene aquifer and G6, G14, G18, G19 and G20 which are mixed of Pleistocene and Miocene.
About 84% of groundwater samples in the study area belong to fresh water class. The rest of groundwater samples (16%) belong to brackish and salt water.
The physicochemical parameters of the studied groundwater samples revealed that groundwater of study area is mainly slightly alkaline, slightly to moderately mineralized and fresh water. Most of the studied groundwater has a moderate corrosive effect and electrical conductivity, and show a low to a moderate hardness.
In the study area, groundwater is considered as a source for irrigation, industrial and daily uses. Groundwater quality deterioration is the major concern in the study area. This could be attributed to the industrial and agricultural activities, inadequate rainfall, over exploitation and improper management of water resources and rapid urbanization.
Spatial distribution maps of chemical constituents and pollution with heavy metals of groundwater in the study area were provided by using of GIS software to explain the areal distribution of these constituents.
The present study revealed that the dominant cations in the groundwater of the study area are Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium and Potassium in a descending order. The abundance of anions relationship is SO42->Cl-> HCO3-.
Relating to the toxic metals, this study revealed that the concentrations of chromium, Cadmium and Lead in most samples are exceeding the standards of (WHO, 2006) for drinking water.
Geochemical classification of groundwater by using of Schoeller, Durov and Piper revealed that in Schoeller diagram, in most samples Na+ + K+ is greater than Ca2+ > Mg2+ and SO42-> Cl- > HCO3-. Most samples are represented by parallel lines to each other which indicate to more similarity of samples.
In Durov diagram, the Sulphate and Chloride ions are the predominant anions. The Bicarbonate ions are also present but in smaller concentration. Sodium and Calcium are the most predominant cations and Magnesium ions are present in a second order. Most water samples located into the lower left sub quadrant of NaHCO3 and Na2SO4. Some samples lie into the lower left sub-quadrant of Ca(HCO3)2 and CaSO4. Some samples lie into the upper right quadrant of NaCl and Na2SO4.
In Piper diagram, it indicates that most of groundwater samples are located in the upper triangle of the diamond shape. They are characterized by Cl- + SO42- is greater than Na+ + K+. This means that most samples are characterized by secondary salinity and secondary alkalinity. Samples which lie in the lower triangle refer to primary salinity and primary alkalinity where (Na+ + K+) exceed (SO42- + Cl-) and (CO32- + HCO3-) exceed (Ca2+ + Mg2+). This means that most groundwater samples are characterized by secondary salinity and secondary alkalinity.
The studied surface water is a slightly alkaline with pH ranging from 7.13 to 8.57 (average of 7.85). EC of the studied surface water ranges from 0.4 to 1.6 dSm-1 (average 1 dSm-1), except the EC of Abu Zaabal lake which reaches to 12.4 dSm-1 due to its very high salinity. TDS ranges from 225 to 1024 mg/l (average of 624 mg/l), except Abu Zaabal Lake where it’s TDS reaches to 7936 mg/l.
The major cations of the surface water of the study area include Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+. Na+ is the most dominant cation in surface water samples of the study area. It ranges from 39.4 mg/l at S20 (Al Adlia) to 219 mg/l at S16 (Belbees Road) with average of 1029.2 mg/l. At Abu Zaabal Lake, the concentration of Sodium reaches to 1840 mg/l. Ca2+ follows Na+ in abundance, and ranges from 20 mg/l at S20 (Al Adlia) to 90 mg/l at S10 (Shebeen Al Qanater) with an average of 55 mg/l. At Abu Zaabal Lake, the concentration of Calcium reaches to 490 mg/l. Mg2+ and K+ are less dominant cations ranging from 9 to 30 mg/l with an average of 19.5 mg/l and from 5.85 mg/l to 16.8 mg/l with an average of 11.32 mg/l, respectively. The concentrations of Mg2+ and K+ at Abu Zaabal Lake reach to 258 mg/l and 37.4 respectively.
The major anions of the studied samples of surface water include Cl-, HCO3- and SO42-. HCO3- content is the most dominant ion where it ranges from 85.4 mg/l to 231.8 mg/l with an average of 158.6 mg/l. Cl- is the second dominant anion where it ranges from 24 mg/l 262.5 mg/l with an average of 143.2 mg/l. SO4- ions ranging from 11.5 mg/l to 315.8 mg/l with an average of 163.8 mg/l. In Abu Zaabal Lake the concentrations are 231.8, 2713 and 2191.7 respectively.
The toxic metals recorded in the samples of surface water in the study area are showing some values exceed the WHO standards of water for drinking and irrigation purposes. This is clearly showed in Pb and Cr which reach to 0.15 ppm and 0.24 ppm respectively.
Twenty one soil samples locating between Inchas and Abu Zaabal were analyzed to define the different values of heavy metals including P, K, Zn, Cu, Ni, Pb, Cd, Cr and Co. Spatial distribution maps of heavy metals of soils were made using (GIS) to identify soil contamination hot spot areas and to assess potential pollutant sources in the study area.
The spatial distribution of (Cr) in the study area soils shows high anomalies in soils around Mashtool Al Sooq and Meneit Salamant samples. The concentration of (Cu) in the studied soils of Study area ranges from 4 to 44.4 ppm (average of 27.1 ppm). The spatial distribution of Cu in study area shows a homogeneous distribution of copper with low concentrations in Al Adlia and Belbees Road. The concentration of Nickel in the study area ranges from 6.4 ppm to 114.7 ppm with an average of 76.8 ppm. There are some high concentrations of Nickel in Inchas El Raml and Mashtool El Sooq.
The concentration of (Pb) in the soils of the study area ranges from 0.0 to 107.3 ppm (average of 9.3 ppm). The spatial distribution of (Pb) in soils shows a high concentration along Belbees Road. The concentration of (Zn) in the studied area ranges from 24.3 to 108.4 ppm with an average of 65.2 ppm. The spatial distribution of Zinc in the soils of the study area shows some high concentrations in Inchas El Raml and Mashtool El Sooq.
The concentration of (Co) in the study area ranges from 0.5 to 29.5 ppm with an average of 65.2 ppm. The spatial distribution of Cobalt in the soils of the study area shows some high concentrations in Inchas El Raml and Mashtool El Sooq.
Using of groundwater and surface water which are contaminated with heavy metals will lead to increasing them in soil and hence, in cultivated crops, which is considered very toxic to human and animal health. Also, using this water for drinking will cause huge health problems for humans and animals.
Assessment of water quality to define its suitability for irrigation and domestic uses has been made. The classification of water for irrigation purposes was obtained by using significant characteristic properties such as Electrical Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Soluble Sodium Percentage (SSP), Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), Magnesium Adsorption Ratio (MAR), Chloride (Cl-) and toxic metals concentration.
According to EC values, 4.3 % of groundwater is doubtful and 13.1 % is unsuitable, while 7 % of surface water is unsuitable for irrigation. Relating to TDS, 4.3 % of groundwater is doubtful and 13.1 % is unsuitable, while 13.4 % of surface water is unsafe. According to SSP values, 21.7 % and 13.4 % of groundwater and surface water, respectively, are unsafe for irrigation.
Most of groundwater and surface water samples are excellent for irrigation purposes according to SAR values, while all samples are excellent for irrigation according to RSC values.
According to Magnesium Adsorption Ratio (MAR), 9 % and 6.7% of groundwater and surface water samples are unsuitable for irrigation purposes.
For irrigation purposes, Cadmium and chromium concentrations exceed international standards for heavy metals in groundwater samples with 95% and 87% respectively. For surface water, chromium concentrations exceed international standards of heavy metals in 86% of surface water samples.
According to TDS, 31 % and 20 % of groundwater and surface water samples, respectively, are unacceptable domestic purposes. Relating to total hardness (TH), 13 % are moderately hard, 52 % are hard and 35 % are very hard, while 60 % are moderately hard, 20 % are hard and the remaining 20 % are very hard, for groundwater and surface water, respectively. According to CR values all samples are safe.
Groundwater samples contain high concentrations of toxic metals that exceed the recommended limits for drinking water especially for Cr, Pb, Fe, Mn and Ni, while surface water exceeds the recommended limits for drinking water, especially for Cr, Fe and Pb, in most samples.
Soil samples of the study area contain high concentrations of some toxic metals which exceed the recommended limits in agricultural soil especially for Cr, Ni and Zn.
Recommendations:
1- Researches are required to complete the picture about the health safety of groundwater and surface water of the study area for industrial, irrigation and domestic uses.
2- Law 48/1982 for the protection of the Nile River and its waterways against pollution must be enforced strictly to prevent the deterioration of water and to improve its quality.
3- Treatment of surface water and shallow groundwater before drinking is a must and sanitary drainage must be generalized.
4- The use of pesticides and fertilizers by farmers should be controlled and industrial wastes should not direct to the canals and drains.
5- Lining irrigation canals and Installing proper drainage and sewage systems in highly populated areas are highly recommended.
6- Using water wells tapping deeper aquifers shall decrease the toxicity of the groundwater.