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Abstract
Child psychiatry practice was based on theories of child development as articulated by Freud, Eriksson, Baldwin, and others; there was an attempt to show how deviations from healthy child development udeviations could be used to devise treatment strategies. These strategies often involved working with the child alone, with the parent alone, or with some combination (family therapy).
So parental elements regarding the parental responsiveness and demandingness, and its impact on the way they rear their children, together with the child temperament (which refers to the stable, early appearing individual differences in behavioral tendencies that have a constitutional basis.) play a great role in the prediction of the child well being in the domains of social competence, academic performance, psychosocial development, and problem behavior (Williams et al., 2009).
Understanding temperament is important because each child is different, about 60% of children fall into one of these three groups (Zentner & Bates, 2008):-
• The Easy Child
• The Difficult Child
• The Slow-to-Warm-Up Child
Meanwhile, Cloninger’s, model of personality is unique, it has three major temperament dimensions (Zentner & Bates, 2008):
a. Novelty Seeking (NS).
b. Harm Avoidance (HA).
c. Reward Dependence (RD).
Furthermore, the inter action between the child characters and the parenting style has been deeply discussed, regarding the definition which describe as the normal variations in parenting by which they influence, teach, and control their children.
The construct of parenting style is used to capture two important elements (Darling, 2010)
• Parental responsiveness (also referred to as parental warmth or supportiveness)
• Parental demandingness (also referred to as behavioral control).
Accordingly, Parents are classified according to whether they are high or low on parental demandingness and responsiveness into four parenting styles (Darling, 2010):
• Authoritarian parents are highly demanding and directive but not responsive.. ”They are obedience- and status-oriented, and expect their orders to be obeyed without explanation”
• Authoritative parents are both demanding and responsive. This child-centered pattern includes high parental involvement, interest, and active participation in the child’s life;
• Uninvolved parents are low in both responsiveness and demandingness. In extreme cases, they might encompass both rejecting–neglecting.
• Indulgent parents (also referred to as ”permissive” or ”nondirective”) are more responsive than demanding. They lack parental control.
Authoritative parenting without physical punishment produces the most positive results and the fewest problems for children in today’s world.
In this context, the concept of expressed emotion has received the most attention, with an emphasis on the family’s role in relapse through criticism of, and overinvolvement in, the life of the relative with mental illness (Greenberg et al., 2008).
Meanwhile, adults with schizophrenia reported a higher quality of life when their mothers displayed higher levels of warmth and their mothers described them in a more affirming and validating way.
Regarding the child depression the temperamental characteristics of reactivity/negative emotionality with the high levels of rejection, parent-child negativity, criticism and low levels of warmth, support from the family, play the major role (Hipwell and colleagues 2008).
Meanwhile, one of the most common problems found in childhood is the anxiety disorders so one of the most widely researched risk factors for anxiety disorders is an inhibited temperament (which is demonstrated as one of the more stable temperamental styles). demonstrated as long latency to approach or communicate with strangers, a tendency to stay within proximity of safety figures, signs of distress or withdrawal in the face of novelty, and restricted and inhibited social behaviors it was found that Childhood fear, shyness, and emotional reactivity/inhibition to novelty have been shown to reliably predict concurrent and later anxiety problems at clinical and symptom levels (Rapee et al., 2009).
Interestingly the Parenting behavior of importance as a possible anxiety disorder-transmission mechanism, is Overinvolved and overcontrolling, they also exhibit behaviors like more encouraging of avoidant behavior, and less encouraging of autonomy and independence controllable, and overprotection (Jennifer’s et al., 2008).
While, playing an important role in the development of social phobia, by the family is by rejective and/or overprotective and having lacked emotional warmth this lead to dysfunctional parent-child bond, which may result in difficulties and anxieties in social situations; in addition, overprotection may keep the offspring from engaging in social situations (Taylor and Alden 2006;).
On the other hand, The panic disorder (PD) patients scored both parents as more rejecting and overprotective, they also perceived their parents as controlling, demanding, frightening, temperamental and critical while, the patients with agoraphobia reported significantly more rejection from both parents and less emotional warmth from mothers (Yasmin et al.,2002).
It was also suggested that there is a significant relationship between a behaviorally inhibited temperament in childhood and symptoms of OCD (Muris et al., 2003).
Furthermore, it has been found that parenting styles high in control and low on affection is associated with OCD; they were also high on overprotection and low on care (Yoshida et al., 2005).
Also, it is suggested that over controlling or hostile parenting, intrapsychic conflicts, or past trauma contribute to the onset of selective mutism(SM) (Denise, 2007).
Moreover, the association between these styles together with the predominant temperament with the related psychiatric disorders was highlighted, for example, the impact of parenting on the externalizing behavior problems was discussed in detail (Dishion and Patterson, 2006).
Externalizing behavior problems – including aggressive, oppositional defiance, destructive, hyper activity and delinquent behavior – represent the most common type of mental health problems in children.
So a lack of the ability to regulate behavior and emotions, (referred as self-regulation), inhibitory control, or self-control (characterized by high impulsivity, low frustration tolerance, and frequent mood changes), and children rated as high on novelty seeking are found to be a particularly important contributor to externalizing behaviors (Gartstein & Fagot, 2003).
Regarding parental side, warmth and positive expressivity may also be linked to children’s regulation and externalizing behavior because of its effects on the quality of the parent–child relationship (Degnan’s et al., 2008).
As feeding is a sensitive indicator of both the state of the parent-child relationship and their moods, it was found that mothers who have a child with feeding problems are more insensitive, intrusive, over stimulating and, less flexible, accepting and affectionate, are liable to use physical punishment, tend to force the feedings, have difficulty receiving signals of their children, and show feelings of anger and hostility during interaction with their children (Feldman et al., 2004).
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which is estimated to affect 4–12% of school-aged children, it is one of the most common neurobehavioral disorders of childhood, so inconsistent, harsh, and excessively lax parenting discipline has been found to correlate with the development of delinquency and aggression, with the Inconsistence use of commands enforcement and demonstration of affection during behavior problems has been associated with degree of resistance (Arnold et al., 1993).
Positive family characteristics, such as parent warmth and involvement, predict reductions in adolescent negative symptoms and enhanced social functioning three months later (O’Brien et al., 2006).